Thompson RC, Swan SH, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS. Our plastic age. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009;364:1973–6.
Andrady AL, Neal MA. Applications and societal benefits of plastics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009;364:1977–84.
Plastics Europe. Plastics – the fast facts 2023. 2023. https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-fast-facts-2023/.
Busch M, Brouwer H, Aalderink G, Bredeck G, Kämpfer AAM, Schins RPF, et al. Investigating nanoplastics toxicity using advanced stem cell-based intestinal and lung in vitro models. Front Toxicol. 2023;5:1112212.
Barría C, Brandts I, Tort L, Oliveira M, Teles M. Effect of nanoplastics on fish health and performance: a review. Mar Pollut Bull. 2020;151:110791.
Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Motta O, Miele Y, Proto A, Montano L. Microplastics in the environment: intake through the food web, human exposure and toxicological effects. Toxics. 2021;9:224.
Wu P, Lin S, Cao G, Wu J, Jin H, Wang C, et al. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity of microplastics in the human body and health implications. J Hazard Mater. 2022;437:129361.
Lehner R, Weder C, Petri-Fink A, Rothen-Rutishauser B. Emergence of nanoplastic in the environment and possible impact on human health. Environ Sci Technol. 2019;53:1748–65.
Goswami S, Adhikary S, Bhattacharya S, Agarwal R, Ganguly A, Nanda S, et al. The alarming link between environmental microplastics and health hazards with special emphasis on cancer. Life Sci. 2024;355:122937.
Rubio L, Barguilla I, Domenech J, Marcos R, Hernández A. Biological effects, including oxidative stress and genotoxic damage, of polystyrene nanoparticles in different human hematopoietic cell lines. J Hazard Mater. 2020;398:122900.
Abbasi S, Turner A. Human exposure to microplastics: a study in Iran. J Hazard Mater. 2021;403:123799.
Huang S, Huang X, Bi R, Guo Q, Yu X, Zeng Q, et al. Detection and analysis of microplastics in human sputum. Environ Sci Technol. 2022;56:2476–86.
Nugrahapraja H, Sugiyo PWW, Putri BQ, Ni’matuzahroh, Fatimah F, Huang L, et al. Effects of microplastic on human gut microbiome: detection of plastic-degrading genes in human gut exposed to microplastics—preliminary study. Environments. 2022;9:140.
Jenner LC, Rotchell JM, Bennett RT, Cowen M, Tentzeris V, Sadofsky LR. Detection of microplastics in human lung tissue using μFTIR spectroscopy. Sci Total Environ. 2022;831:154907.
Sangkham S, Faikhaw O, Munkong N, Sakunkoo P, Arunlertaree C, Chavali M, et al. A review on microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment: Their occurrence, exposure routes, toxic studies, and potential effects on human health. Mar Pollut Bull. 2022;181:113832.
Leslie HA, van Velzen MJM, Brandsma SH, Vethaak AD, Garcia-Vallejo JJ, Lamoree MH. Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood. Environ Int. 2022;163:107199.
Braun T, Ehrlich L, Henrich W, Koeppel S, Lomako I, Schwabl P, et al. Detection of microplastic in human placenta and meconium in a clinical setting. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13:921.
Ragusa A, Svelato A, Santacroce C, Catalano P, Notarstefano V, Carnevali O, et al. Plasticenta: first evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environ Int. 2021;146:106274.
Schwabl P, Köppel S, Königshofer P, Bucsics T, Trauner M, Reiberger T, et al. Detection of various microplastics in human stool: a prospective case series. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171:453–7.
Marfella R, Prattichizzo F, Sardu C, Fulgenzi G, Graciotti L, Spadoni T, et al. Microplastics and nanoplastics in atheromas and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2024;390:900–10.
Yin K, Wang D, Zhang Y, Lu H, Hou L, Guo T, et al. Polystyrene microplastics promote liver inflammation by inducing the formation of macrophages extracellular traps. J Hazard Mater. 2023;452:131236.
Bu N, Du Q, Xiao T, Jiang Z, Lin J, Chen W, et al. Mechanism of S-palmitoylation in polystyrene nanoplastics-induced macrophage cuproptosis contributing to emphysema through alveolar epithelial cell pyroptosis. ACS Nano. 2025;19:18708–28.
Bao Q, Huang Y, Deng M, Zhang C, Zu D, He H, et al. PVC nanoplastics exposure exacerbates asthma through r-loop accumulation and subsequent sting activation in macrophages. Adv Sci. 2025;12:e02223.
Vu J, Nadeau K, Kasowski M. Molecular mechanisms of air pollution-induced carcinogenesis and the emerging role of microplastics. Hum Genomics. 2025;20:6.
Crosbie EJ, Kitson SJ, McAlpine JN, Mukhopadhyay A, Powell ME, Singh N. Endometrial cancer. Lancet. 2022;399:1412–28.
Felix AS, Brinton LA. Cancer progress and priorities: uterine cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2018;27:985–94.
Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, et al. Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71:209–49.
Kim H, Zaheer J, Choi E-J, Kim JS. Enhanced ASGR2 by microplastic exposure leads to resistance to therapy in gastric cancer. Theranostics. 2022;12:3217–36.
Brynzak-Schreiber E, Schögl E, Bapp C, Cseh K, Kopatz V, Jakupec MA, et al. Microplastics role in cell migration and distribution during cancer cell division. Chemosphere. 2024;353:141463.
Balali H, Morabbi A, Karimian M. Concerning influences of micro/nano plastics on female reproductive health: focusing on cellular and molecular pathways from animal models to human studies. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2024;22:141.
Qin X, Cao M, Peng T, Shan H, Lian W, Yu Y, et al. Features, potential invasion pathways, and reproductive health risks of microplastics detected in human uterus. Environ Sci Technol. 2024;58:10482–93.
Ding Y, Fan Y, Li X, Wang Y, Wang J, Tian L. Metabolic syndrome is an independent risk factor for time to complete remission of fertility-sparing treatment in atypical endometrial hyperplasia and early endometrial carcinoma patients. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2022;20:134.
Esposito K, Chiodini P, Colao A, Lenzi A, Giugliano D. Metabolic syndrome and risk of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:2402–11.
Jo H, Kim SI, Wang W, Seol A, Han Y, Kim J, et al. Metabolic syndrome as a risk factor of endometrial cancer: a nationwide population-based cohort study of 2.8 million women in South Korea. Front Oncol. 2022;12:872995.
Pérez-Martín AR, Castro-Eguiluz D, Cetina-Pérez L, Velasco-Torres Y, Bahena-González A, Montes-Servín E, et al. Impact of metabolic syndrome on the risk of endometrial cancer and the role of lifestyle in prevention. Bosn J Basic Med Sci. 2022;22:499–510.
Wang X, Li Y, Hou X, Li J, Ma X. Lipid metabolism reprogramming in endometrial cancer: biological functions and therapeutic implications. Cell Commun Signal. 2024;22:436.
Mishra A, Ganguli N, Majumdar SS, Modi D. Loss of HOXA10 causes endometrial hyperplasia progressing to endometrial cancer. J Mol Endocrinol. 2022;69:431–44.
Wu B, Wu X, Liu S, Wang Z, Chen L. Size-dependent effects of polystyrene microplastics on cytotoxicity and efflux pump inhibition in human Caco-2 cells. Chemosphere. 2019;221:333–41.
Chen H, Li L, Liu H, Qin P, Chen R, Liu S, et al. PAX2 is regulated by estrogen/progesterone through promoter methylation in endometrioid adenocarcinoma and has an important role in carcinogenesis via the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. J Pathol. 2024;262:467–79.
Rodriguez AC, Vahrenkamp JM, Berrett KC, Clark KA, Guillen KP, Scherer SD, et al. ETV4 is necessary for estrogen signaling and growth in endometrial cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2020;80:1234–45.
Terakawa N, Hayashida M, Shimizu I, Ikegami H, Wakimoto H, Aono T, et al. Growth inhibition by progestins in a human endometrial cancer cell line with estrogen-independent progesterone receptors. Cancer Res. 1987;47:1918–23.
Yoshida H, Broaddus R, Cheng W, Xie S, Naora H. Deregulation of the HOXA10 homeobox gene in endometrial carcinoma: role in epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Cancer Res. 2006;66:889–97.
Röhrig F, Schulze A. The multifaceted roles of fatty acid synthesis in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2016;16:732–49.
Li X, Yu W, Qian X, Xia Y, Zheng Y, Lee J.-H. et al. Nucleus-translocated ACSS2 promotes gene transcription for lysosomal biogenesis and autophagy. Mol Cell. 2017;66:684–97.
Ma S, Li S, Jiang S, Wang L, Zhan D, Xiong M, et al. Maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics disrupts spermatogenesis in mouse offspring by inducing Prdm14 overexpression in undifferentiated spermatogonia. ACS Nano. 2025;19:2148–61.
Naidu G, Nagar N, Poluri KM. Mechanistic insights into cellular and molecular basis of protein-nanoplastic interactions. Small. 2023;20:e2305094.
Peng Y, He Q. Reproductive toxicity and related mechanisms of micro(nano)plastics in terrestrial mammals: Review of current evidence. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2024;279:116505.
Yang H, Wen Y, Zhang M, Liu Q, Zhang H, Zhang J, et al. MTORC1 coordinates the autophagy and apoptosis signaling in articular chondrocytes in osteoarthritic temporomandibular joint. Autophagy. 2019;16:271–88.
Zhao Y, Hu X, Liu Y, Dong S, Wen Z, He W, et al. ROS signaling under metabolic stress: cross-talk between AMPK and AKT pathway. Mol Cancer. 2017;16:79.
Lin Y, Lin A, Cai L, Huang W, Yan S, Wei Y, et al. ACSS2-dependent histone acetylation improves cognition in mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Neurodegener. 2023;18:47.
Mews P, Donahue G, Drake AM, Luczak V, Abel T, Berger SL. Acetyl-CoA synthetase regulates histone acetylation and hippocampal memory. Nature. 2017;546:381–6.
Huang Z, Zhang M, Plec AA, Estill SJ, Cai L, Repa JJ, et al. ACSS2 promotes systemic fat storage and utilization through selective regulation of genes involved in lipid metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2018;115:E9499–E9506.
Gómez-Valenzuela F, Escobar E, Pérez-Tomás R, Montecinos VP. The inflammatory profile of the tumor microenvironment, orchestrated by cyclooxygenase-2, promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Front Oncol. 2021;11:686792.
De-la-Torre GE. Microplastics: an emerging threat to food security and human health. J Food Sci Technol. 2020;57:1601–8.
Chen Q, Gao J, Yu H, Su H, Yang Y, Cao Y, et al. An emerging role of microplastics in the etiology of lung ground glass nodules. Environ Sci Eur. 2022;34:25.

